The 1st reference of the presence of Indus valley civilization at harappa was recorded by C.Mason in 1826, which was published in 1842.
Alexander Cunnighma ( A british engineer and a great patron of Indian History) had visited this site twice 1st in 1853 another time in 1856 and recorded a series of Mounds there.He did limited excavation of the site and published objects such as seal and site plan. He identified harappa with po-fa-to visited by Hieun - Tsang (was a chinese monk scholar and traveler).
But it was the early 1920s and our history which was going to debunk lots of earlier assumption about the civilization was opening up. It was the Britishers who dig it up accidentally in order to laid railway lines in every possible corner of India to Exhaust Indian Resources.
It was the extension of such route in Sindh that hit upon it. John Marshall the then Director general of the archaeological Survey of India and M.S. Vats made a spectacular discovery : the twin city harappa and mohanjodaro where history was being rewritten,like never before. The final discovery of Indus valley civilization placed India on the world map along with Mesopotamia and Egypt.
At the present we have 1500 Sites and mature sites could be limited to 200 Sites,Still less numbers can be considered the cities.After the partition of India most of the well known sites Mohanjodaro -Harappa - Chanhudaro etc. went to Pakistan. and we had left with tow site one in Ropar and one in Gujrat. The excavation before 1947 had put us on the world map among the oldest civilizations in world by that time but the excavation was not yest completed more things was about to be discovered which was going to debunk earlier claims.
A ghosh (Amalananda Ghosh was a respected Indian archaeologist, the author and editor of numerous works on India’s ancient civilizations, and the organizer and director of archaeological expeditions during the mid-1900s) undertook the exploration of valley dried up Saraswati and its tributary in North Rajasthan and discovered around 25 sites.
Suraj Bhan(Bhan's early research was on the archaeology of prehistoric sites along the old river channels of Sarsuti–Ghaggar and Chautang rivers in Haryana. In 1968, he excavated the Indus culture site of Mitatha) noticed a number of sites in upper valley such as Banwali , Rakhigarhi ,Mithathal.
In the sixties S.R. Rao explored a larger area in Gujrat including Kutch and Kathiawar which brought the total number of sites in Gujrat to 190.
Extent
The exploration , excavation and researchers have shown that Indus valley Civilization was not confined to Indus valley only but it has extended up to Punjap, Haryana,Sind,Gujrat,Rajasthan, uttar Pradesh, and northern Maharashtra.The entire area of Indus civilization was triangular in form and was total 12,99,600 sq km.
Chronology
The problem of fixing the Harappan chronology is a difficult task and several researcher has come forward with their own dates based on Facts and findings.
1) According to Marshall Mohanjodaro fell approximately 3250 BCE and 2750 BCE.
2) Mackay assigned the age between 2800 BC to 2500 BC.
3) M.S Vats suggested the time bracket between 3500 BCE-2500 BCE
4 ) Stuart piggot suggested the dates between 2500 BCE -1500 BCE
Many more researchers came up with their own dates which were more or less similar to above mentioned dates.
Nomenclature
The Indus valley civilization belongs to the proto-historic period since it represents a period in which people had developed a script and written records are available. Although some scholars put Indus to chalcolithic period.on the other hand Harappan used bronze on large scale.So its agreed that Indus civilization belongs to Bronze age.
Origin
The problem with the origin of Indus valley Still remain very complex and various views have been expressed. from the 1st forey by Europeans in to Indian pre and proto history it was believed till 1950 that urban culture emerged suddenly in 3 Millennium BC and it was thought to be the plantation from Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Our understanding has undergone considerable changes in last 40 -50 years in the growing evidence of farming activities in the north west long before the emergence of urban cities.It has been established that Mehargarh was suited be a centre of transformation from hunting and collecting to domestication of animal and settled agriculture. Structure made of mud bricks has been discovered.
From Mehargarh we have evidence of gazelle,Deer,Wild pig,Goats,Sheep,and cattle.the two principla grains were Wheat and barley. Constantini reported that there was clear evidence in period I and II that wild barley was in course of transition to its cultivated form.
In the Latter Period we have evidence of increasing interaction over a vast area and share Important characteristics with its successor known as mature harappan period. Some cities like Balakot and Amri the process of change is clearly visible.
Important Cities Of Indus Valley Civilisation
1 Harappa - The site has two large and imposing ruined mounds located some 25 kms South West of the district town of montgomary,Punjab on the left bank of river Ravi.The western mound of harappa Small in size represented the citadel.
The location of harappa has let to believe several authorsthat it was the gateway city on the edge of the harappan domain and meeting point of many route arriving from the Gomal and other passes into Iranian plateau. The evidence of the burial of dead is quite interesting the dead wer buried in the grounds with several objects like jewelry mirrors etc.
From harappa the 891 seals have been discovered which constitutes the 29.7 % of the toal seals discovered in Indus digging. the two interesting stone sculptures have been found in harappa which no other sites have found. One is of Nude male torso of red stone and other is of dancing girl.
Some other Imporatnt Findings at harappa is a well preserved water reservoir lined with brick and provided with a narrow cover channel.
2 Mohanjodaro - The city of dead mound situated in sind pakistan some 483 kms south of harappa also has two mounds. the western mound was a citadel and the eastern extensive mound was enshrining the relics of the buried lower city. earlier it was considered the largest city of indus civilization( Rakhigarhi was the largest city of the world by latest findings) and along with harappa considered the twin capitals of the Indus.
The most famous finding of Mohanjodaro is the Great bath. Situated on the citadel its a most beautiful specimen of brickwork. it is a rectangular tank and measure 11.88 m from north to south. its 7.01 m broad and 2.43 m deep.
Some of the important relics of this city are representation of ship on a stone seal,representation of ship on terracotta amulet ,copper tools and vessels ,lime stone sculpture of bearded head ,composite animal bull with elephant's trunk and rain's horn. a toy bull with moving head, stone lingam,terracotta seated figure of a women,perhaps making dough and many more.
3. Dholavira - Today a modest village in in the bhachau taluka of district of kutch in Gujrat, Dholavira is the latest and also one of the largest settlement in India after rakhigarhi and mohanjodaro and most probably rank 4th in continent.
The ancient mound of Dholavira was 1st explored by J.P Joshi of ASI but extensive excavation were conduct in there in 1990-1991 by a team of ASI lead by RS Bisht. The latest excavation has revealed some spectacular remains of yet another harappan city which are highlighted by enormous proportions,Intricate planing delineated by an elaborate fortification ,consummate architecture, fine water structure and accumulation of successive settlement of over a millennium.
Dholavira has unique feature found nowhere at another harappan sites,unlike other towns which were divided in to 2 citadel, Dholavira was divided in to 3 parts 2 of which was protected by strong fortification. no other site has such elaborate structure.
Another important findings at dholavira are remains of a horse,many copper objects including a bronze animal figure,evidence of copper working,bead working and other craft working. Exploxing Dholavira is like opening an book. We have now answers to some of the most enduring riddles about the civilization.
4. Rakhigarhi - A three years long excavation at rakhigarhi in Haryana's Hisar District has unearthed another Harapan nucleus town,Which could have the provincial capital of the harapan civilization. The excavation is being carried By ASI since december 1997,has revealed some important results.
The dead were buried in a long pit in a north south direction. Grave generally considered good consisting of pots keeping behind the head of dead.
There are nine mounds in Rakhigarhi which are
named RGR-1 to RGR-9, of which RGR-5 is thickly populated by establishment of
Rakhishahpur village and is not available for excavations. RGR-1 to RGR-3, RGR6
to RGR9 and some part of RGR-4 are available for excavations.
Alexander Cunnighma ( A british engineer and a great patron of Indian History) had visited this site twice 1st in 1853 another time in 1856 and recorded a series of Mounds there.He did limited excavation of the site and published objects such as seal and site plan. He identified harappa with po-fa-to visited by Hieun - Tsang (was a chinese monk scholar and traveler).
But it was the early 1920s and our history which was going to debunk lots of earlier assumption about the civilization was opening up. It was the Britishers who dig it up accidentally in order to laid railway lines in every possible corner of India to Exhaust Indian Resources.
It was the extension of such route in Sindh that hit upon it. John Marshall the then Director general of the archaeological Survey of India and M.S. Vats made a spectacular discovery : the twin city harappa and mohanjodaro where history was being rewritten,like never before. The final discovery of Indus valley civilization placed India on the world map along with Mesopotamia and Egypt.
At the present we have 1500 Sites and mature sites could be limited to 200 Sites,Still less numbers can be considered the cities.After the partition of India most of the well known sites Mohanjodaro -Harappa - Chanhudaro etc. went to Pakistan. and we had left with tow site one in Ropar and one in Gujrat. The excavation before 1947 had put us on the world map among the oldest civilizations in world by that time but the excavation was not yest completed more things was about to be discovered which was going to debunk earlier claims.
A ghosh (Amalananda Ghosh was a respected Indian archaeologist, the author and editor of numerous works on India’s ancient civilizations, and the organizer and director of archaeological expeditions during the mid-1900s) undertook the exploration of valley dried up Saraswati and its tributary in North Rajasthan and discovered around 25 sites.
Suraj Bhan(Bhan's early research was on the archaeology of prehistoric sites along the old river channels of Sarsuti–Ghaggar and Chautang rivers in Haryana. In 1968, he excavated the Indus culture site of Mitatha) noticed a number of sites in upper valley such as Banwali , Rakhigarhi ,Mithathal.
In the sixties S.R. Rao explored a larger area in Gujrat including Kutch and Kathiawar which brought the total number of sites in Gujrat to 190.
Extent
The exploration , excavation and researchers have shown that Indus valley Civilization was not confined to Indus valley only but it has extended up to Punjap, Haryana,Sind,Gujrat,Rajasthan, uttar Pradesh, and northern Maharashtra.The entire area of Indus civilization was triangular in form and was total 12,99,600 sq km.
Chronology
The problem of fixing the Harappan chronology is a difficult task and several researcher has come forward with their own dates based on Facts and findings.
1) According to Marshall Mohanjodaro fell approximately 3250 BCE and 2750 BCE.
2) Mackay assigned the age between 2800 BC to 2500 BC.
3) M.S Vats suggested the time bracket between 3500 BCE-2500 BCE
4 ) Stuart piggot suggested the dates between 2500 BCE -1500 BCE
Many more researchers came up with their own dates which were more or less similar to above mentioned dates.
Nomenclature
The Indus valley civilization belongs to the proto-historic period since it represents a period in which people had developed a script and written records are available. Although some scholars put Indus to chalcolithic period.on the other hand Harappan used bronze on large scale.So its agreed that Indus civilization belongs to Bronze age.
Origin
The problem with the origin of Indus valley Still remain very complex and various views have been expressed. from the 1st forey by Europeans in to Indian pre and proto history it was believed till 1950 that urban culture emerged suddenly in 3 Millennium BC and it was thought to be the plantation from Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Our understanding has undergone considerable changes in last 40 -50 years in the growing evidence of farming activities in the north west long before the emergence of urban cities.It has been established that Mehargarh was suited be a centre of transformation from hunting and collecting to domestication of animal and settled agriculture. Structure made of mud bricks has been discovered.
From Mehargarh we have evidence of gazelle,Deer,Wild pig,Goats,Sheep,and cattle.the two principla grains were Wheat and barley. Constantini reported that there was clear evidence in period I and II that wild barley was in course of transition to its cultivated form.
In the Latter Period we have evidence of increasing interaction over a vast area and share Important characteristics with its successor known as mature harappan period. Some cities like Balakot and Amri the process of change is clearly visible.
Important Cities Of Indus Valley Civilisation
1 Harappa - The site has two large and imposing ruined mounds located some 25 kms South West of the district town of montgomary,Punjab on the left bank of river Ravi.The western mound of harappa Small in size represented the citadel.
The location of harappa has let to believe several authorsthat it was the gateway city on the edge of the harappan domain and meeting point of many route arriving from the Gomal and other passes into Iranian plateau. The evidence of the burial of dead is quite interesting the dead wer buried in the grounds with several objects like jewelry mirrors etc.
From harappa the 891 seals have been discovered which constitutes the 29.7 % of the toal seals discovered in Indus digging. the two interesting stone sculptures have been found in harappa which no other sites have found. One is of Nude male torso of red stone and other is of dancing girl.
Some other Imporatnt Findings at harappa is a well preserved water reservoir lined with brick and provided with a narrow cover channel.
2 Mohanjodaro - The city of dead mound situated in sind pakistan some 483 kms south of harappa also has two mounds. the western mound was a citadel and the eastern extensive mound was enshrining the relics of the buried lower city. earlier it was considered the largest city of indus civilization( Rakhigarhi was the largest city of the world by latest findings) and along with harappa considered the twin capitals of the Indus.
The most famous finding of Mohanjodaro is the Great bath. Situated on the citadel its a most beautiful specimen of brickwork. it is a rectangular tank and measure 11.88 m from north to south. its 7.01 m broad and 2.43 m deep.
Some of the important relics of this city are representation of ship on a stone seal,representation of ship on terracotta amulet ,copper tools and vessels ,lime stone sculpture of bearded head ,composite animal bull with elephant's trunk and rain's horn. a toy bull with moving head, stone lingam,terracotta seated figure of a women,perhaps making dough and many more.
3. Dholavira - Today a modest village in in the bhachau taluka of district of kutch in Gujrat, Dholavira is the latest and also one of the largest settlement in India after rakhigarhi and mohanjodaro and most probably rank 4th in continent.
The ancient mound of Dholavira was 1st explored by J.P Joshi of ASI but extensive excavation were conduct in there in 1990-1991 by a team of ASI lead by RS Bisht. The latest excavation has revealed some spectacular remains of yet another harappan city which are highlighted by enormous proportions,Intricate planing delineated by an elaborate fortification ,consummate architecture, fine water structure and accumulation of successive settlement of over a millennium.
Dholavira has unique feature found nowhere at another harappan sites,unlike other towns which were divided in to 2 citadel, Dholavira was divided in to 3 parts 2 of which was protected by strong fortification. no other site has such elaborate structure.
Another important findings at dholavira are remains of a horse,many copper objects including a bronze animal figure,evidence of copper working,bead working and other craft working. Exploxing Dholavira is like opening an book. We have now answers to some of the most enduring riddles about the civilization.
4. Rakhigarhi - A three years long excavation at rakhigarhi in Haryana's Hisar District has unearthed another Harapan nucleus town,Which could have the provincial capital of the harapan civilization. The excavation is being carried By ASI since december 1997,has revealed some important results.
The dead were buried in a long pit in a north south direction. Grave generally considered good consisting of pots keeping behind the head of dead.
The ASI's detailed excavation of the site revealed the size
of the lost city and recovered numerous artefacts, some over 5,000 years old.
Rakhigarhi was occupied at Early Harappan times.Evidence of paved roads,
drainage system, large rainwater collection, storage system, terracotta bricks,
statue production, and skilled working of bronze and precious metals have been
uncovered. Jewellery, including bangles made from terracotta, conch shells,
gold, and semi-precious stones, have also been found.
Hunting tools like copper hafts and fish hooks have been
found here. Presence of various toys like mini wheels, miniature lids, sling
balls, animal figurines indicates a prevalence of toy culture. Signs of
flourishing trade can be seen by the excavation of stamps, jewellery and
'chert' weights. Weights found here are similar to weights found at many other
IVC sites confirming presence of standardized weight systems.
In May 2012, the Global Heritage Fund, declared Rakhigarhi
one of the 10 most endangered heritage sites in Asia.A study by the Sunday
Times, found that the site is not being looked after, the iron boundary wall is
broken, and villagers sell the artefacts they dig out of the site and parts of
site are now being encroached by private houses
5 Suktagendor - Situated at the distance of 56 kms from arabian sea and some 500 kms south to karachi on the bank of dasht river near the border with Iran, it was an important centre of the Indus civilization discovered by Sir Aurel Stein in 1931. According to Dales,Suktagendor was originally a port later cut off from the sea due to coastal uplift.
According to Shashi Asthana Suktagendor was connected with the distribution of trade items. It was established to send Consignments in various directions,particularly to west asia.
Though inland at
present, the site may have been near navigable water in ancient times, on a
trade route between other centers. A coastal route existed linking sites such
as Lothal and Dholavira to Sutkagan Dor on the Makran coast. It has been
suggested that the site may well have been an important trading post,
connecting seaborne trade from the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea to the
hinterland
6. Balakot - Among the coastal sites ,Balakot situated near the middle of khurkhera alluvial plain on southern eastern side of the las bela valley to the west of karachi. Balakot has proved to be a important settlement yielding the relics of the pre Indus and Indus civilization. Here the mounds lie short distance from modern seashore.
These mounds were excavated by George F Dales in 1963-1969.
7. Lothal - Lothal is one of the
most prominent cities of the ancient Indus valley civilisation, located in the
Bhāl region of the modern state of Gujarāt and dating from 3700 BCE.Discovered
in 1954, Lothal was excavated from 13 February 1955 to 19 May 1960 by the
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), the official Indian government agency for
the preservation of ancient monuments.
Lothal's dock—the world's earliest
known—connected the city to an ancient course of the Sabarmati river on the
trade route between Harappan cities in Sindh and the peninsula of Saurashtra
when the surrounding Kutch desert of today was a part of the Arabian Sea. It
was a vital and thriving trade centre in ancient times, with its trade of beads,
gems and valuable ornaments reaching the far corners of West Asia and Africa.
The techniques and tools they pioneered for bead-making and in metallurgy have
stood the test of time for over 4000 years.
From the excavated material its known that this site was of intermediate level ,appear to be happen Mini Harapa or mohanjodaro. However lothal appears to be better planed than Mohanjodaro in one rspect. The streets at lothal are straight and constantly run in cordinal directions.
In the bazar the workshops of Shell workers and Copper smith have been unearthed.The discovery of persian gulf seal and the reserved slip ware suggets that lothal was engaged in maritime activities. Another Important Discovery at the site was Cementary which was on a slightly raised ground ,adjacent to habitation. The area was very small and congested because of the lack of enough flat open and dry ground.
Another Important discovery from the lothal was the evidence of rice cultivation. We have husks in the form of imprints on the pottery.Rangpur is the only other site from where similar evidence have been unearthed.
8. Surkotada - Situated some 160 kms,North east of bhuj in kutch ,Surkotada has proved to be Important fortified Indus settlement in the sense that here three stages of harappan occupation are in evidence.
Bones of horse have been noticed. A cemetery with four pots burials with a few human bones have also been found.Presence of Mongooses
were found in Surkotada as well as in Mohenjadaro, Harappa, Rangpur, India
indicating that these animals were kept as a protection against snakes.Elephant
bones and wolf bones (tamed?) were also found at Surkotada
9. Banawali - is an archaeological
site belonging to Indus Valley Civilization period in Fatehabad district,
Haryana, India and is located about 120 km northeast of Kalibangan and 16 km
from Fatehabad. Banawali, which is earlier called Vanavali, is on the left
banks of dried up Sarasvati River. Comparing to Kalibangan, which was a town
established in lower middle valley of dried up Sarasvathi River, Banawali was
built over upper middle valley of Sarasvathi River.
The material remains at banawali are quite rich ,which includes classical Indus ceramics,Several steatite Seals and few terracotta sealings with typical Indus Script. Others findings include golden plated terracotta beads,beads of lapis lazuli ,bone,faience,steatite and clay beads. The terracotta figures includes a few mother Goddess figure.
10. Kalibangan - The site of kalibangan is situated on the southern bank of the now dry ghagar river,about 200 mks of south east of harappa. It is situated in the ganganagar district of Rajasthan.its plan is similar to in many aspects to mohanjodaro and harappa ,although smaller than the two.
Kalibangan's
excavation report was published in its entirety in 2003 by the Archaeological
Survey of India, 34 years after the completion of excavations. The report
concluded that Kalibangan was a major provincial capital of the Indus Valley
Civilization. Kalibangan is distinguished by its unique fire altars and
"world's earliest attested ploughed field".
Life Of Indus valley People
Besides Barley ,Wheat,Milk,Vegetable ,legmus ,oil,millets,ragi,bajra,and fruits were Included in the diet of harappan people. in addition animal food such beef ,mutton,pork was also Included in the diet.
Costumes of Indus People
The costume as revealed from the terracotta figure of mother goddess tells that ladies were dresses scantily. they wore a short skirt which reach up to the knee,and was held by a gridle-a string of beads. the male use to robe with or without embroidery.It was worn over a left shoulder and under the right arm. women used to take special care of their hair .Even men were having several style for the hair. Women use to ornaments made of precious stone and copper Gold ans silver. Music and dance were both religious and Secular.
Political Life Of Indus Valley People
According to Kenoyer political system of Indus valley people composed of several competing classes of elites who use to maintain city at different level. according to him priests merchants use to rule the vast cities id Indus valley.These groups may have different means for the control of city,but used to share common ideology and economic system.
Religious Life of Indus Valley People
According to the findings the people had very indirect religious life based on Seals terracotta and metal figures,cosmetics etc.Except for the discovery of fire altars in kalibangan no other cult objects have been found. Mother Goddess Pashpati shiva idols are the main which hints towards Idol worshiping of Indus valley People. Animal worshiping was also in system which can be found out by animal on seal or in terracotta and in stone figure.Tree worship was also common in Indus valley People and fire was also used to worship. The worship methods of Indus people were almost like we have today.
Economic Life Indus valley People
The economy of Indus valley was based on irrigated surplus agriculture ,Cattle rearing, proficiency in various craft and brisk trade both internal and external. In the mature Harappan period there is a considerable amount of information about animal husbandry and agriculture. The range of domesticated animal or wild animal used for food is quite large.
The Harappan people cultivated various crops because the most of settlements were across the river land which was very fertile. Indus valley people had perfect system developed for the irrigation ,wheat is frequently recorded and barley and wheat were the main crops, other crops including dates ,field peas sesamum ,mustard ,millets,bajra etc.
Trade of Indus valley people
what ever findings is found it shows that Indus people were very good at trade ,findings of seals and sealing in many western countries points towards the external trade by Indus people may be with Mesopotamia and other west Asian cities.
Fall Of Indus valley Civilisation
like its Language the answer of its decline is a mystery every person is having their assumption based on whatever findings or records has found.During its last phase probably between 2000 and 1700 BC. Climate Change,Disease,Invasion,Flooding and insecure condition etc has been the reason pointed out by Scholars.
1) Mortimer wheeler believed that the invading Aryans destroyed the Indus Settlement. he said that in last moments men women and children were massacred in the street. Skelton were found in the digging and one head was having Signs of sword.
2) E.J.H Mackay,Lambrick and Sir John Marshall suggests that the decline of Indus settlement due to the vagaries of Indus river.
3) B.K. Thapar is of the view that environmental factors ,including the behaviour of river ,Climate change and accessibility of natural resources were the reason for the decline of Indus civilisation.
Life Of Indus valley People
Besides Barley ,Wheat,Milk,Vegetable ,legmus ,oil,millets,ragi,bajra,and fruits were Included in the diet of harappan people. in addition animal food such beef ,mutton,pork was also Included in the diet.
Costumes of Indus People
The costume as revealed from the terracotta figure of mother goddess tells that ladies were dresses scantily. they wore a short skirt which reach up to the knee,and was held by a gridle-a string of beads. the male use to robe with or without embroidery.It was worn over a left shoulder and under the right arm. women used to take special care of their hair .Even men were having several style for the hair. Women use to ornaments made of precious stone and copper Gold ans silver. Music and dance were both religious and Secular.
Political Life Of Indus Valley People
According to Kenoyer political system of Indus valley people composed of several competing classes of elites who use to maintain city at different level. according to him priests merchants use to rule the vast cities id Indus valley.These groups may have different means for the control of city,but used to share common ideology and economic system.
Religious Life of Indus Valley People
According to the findings the people had very indirect religious life based on Seals terracotta and metal figures,cosmetics etc.Except for the discovery of fire altars in kalibangan no other cult objects have been found. Mother Goddess Pashpati shiva idols are the main which hints towards Idol worshiping of Indus valley People. Animal worshiping was also in system which can be found out by animal on seal or in terracotta and in stone figure.Tree worship was also common in Indus valley People and fire was also used to worship. The worship methods of Indus people were almost like we have today.
Economic Life Indus valley People
The economy of Indus valley was based on irrigated surplus agriculture ,Cattle rearing, proficiency in various craft and brisk trade both internal and external. In the mature Harappan period there is a considerable amount of information about animal husbandry and agriculture. The range of domesticated animal or wild animal used for food is quite large.
The Harappan people cultivated various crops because the most of settlements were across the river land which was very fertile. Indus valley people had perfect system developed for the irrigation ,wheat is frequently recorded and barley and wheat were the main crops, other crops including dates ,field peas sesamum ,mustard ,millets,bajra etc.
Trade of Indus valley people
what ever findings is found it shows that Indus people were very good at trade ,findings of seals and sealing in many western countries points towards the external trade by Indus people may be with Mesopotamia and other west Asian cities.
Fall Of Indus valley Civilisation
like its Language the answer of its decline is a mystery every person is having their assumption based on whatever findings or records has found.During its last phase probably between 2000 and 1700 BC. Climate Change,Disease,Invasion,Flooding and insecure condition etc has been the reason pointed out by Scholars.
1) Mortimer wheeler believed that the invading Aryans destroyed the Indus Settlement. he said that in last moments men women and children were massacred in the street. Skelton were found in the digging and one head was having Signs of sword.
2) E.J.H Mackay,Lambrick and Sir John Marshall suggests that the decline of Indus settlement due to the vagaries of Indus river.
3) B.K. Thapar is of the view that environmental factors ,including the behaviour of river ,Climate change and accessibility of natural resources were the reason for the decline of Indus civilisation.
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